Essay --

Betty Hart and Todd R. Risley conducted a clinical language intervention at Turner House Preschool in Kansas City, Kansas. Most interventions use an IQ test as measurement, but they chose to instead look at the growth of the everyday language of the children. The test also included University of Kansas professors' children for comparison. The language intensive activities used resulted in a spur of new vocabulary words, but the effects were only temporary. By the time the children moved to kindergarten, the effects from the vocabulary boost were gone. There was a noticeable difference in vocabulary growth rate between the Turner House children and the professors' children. This concluded that if they were to understand the reasons for the different developmental trajectories, they would have to examine the very start of vocabulary growth. They looked at 42 families for an hour each month and children from 7-9 months old until three years old. Families were selectively recruited through birth announcements. Betty and Todd wanted to make sure they had a diverse and reliable selection. Selected families spanned almost the whole socioeconomic ladder. Thirteen were upper class, ten were in the middle, thirteen were lower class, and six were on welfare. After years analyzing the collected data they saw the first results. The children's vocabularies were greatly influenced by their parents. The welfare family children had the smallest vocabulary and lowest rate of vocabulary growth. These children's skills were diverging from the skills of the professors' children. Curious to see if the children's initial vocabulary would influence school performance at ages 9-10, Betty and Todd hired Dale Walker to examine this. His findings w... ...kheim defines what he calls â€Å"social fact† in his book â€Å"The Rules of the Sociological Method† is â€Å"the beliefs, tendencies, and practices of the group taken collectively†. This could also be read as â€Å"the religious denominations, political and literary schools, and occupational corporations of a particular social system†. Social fact can’t exist without well-defined social organization. Durkheim claims â€Å"most of our ideas and tendencies are not developed by ourselves, but come to us from the outside†. This ties back to what â€Å"The 30 Million Word Gap† was about. The social facts imposed on children by their parents and teachers will precisely shape the child’s image. As the child grows older and becomes part of their society, their ways of thinking and feeling exist outside of their consciousness. Whether they realize it or not, their social fact has been imposed on them. Essay -- Betty Hart and Todd R. Risley conducted a clinical language intervention at Turner House Preschool in Kansas City, Kansas. Most interventions use an IQ test as measurement, but they chose to instead look at the growth of the everyday language of the children. The test also included University of Kansas professors' children for comparison. The language intensive activities used resulted in a spur of new vocabulary words, but the effects were only temporary. By the time the children moved to kindergarten, the effects from the vocabulary boost were gone. There was a noticeable difference in vocabulary growth rate between the Turner House children and the professors' children. This concluded that if they were to understand the reasons for the different developmental trajectories, they would have to examine the very start of vocabulary growth. They looked at 42 families for an hour each month and children from 7-9 months old until three years old. Families were selectively recruited through birth announcements. Betty and Todd wanted to make sure they had a diverse and reliable selection. Selected families spanned almost the whole socioeconomic ladder. Thirteen were upper class, ten were in the middle, thirteen were lower class, and six were on welfare. After years analyzing the collected data they saw the first results. The children's vocabularies were greatly influenced by their parents. The welfare family children had the smallest vocabulary and lowest rate of vocabulary growth. These children's skills were diverging from the skills of the professors' children. Curious to see if the children's initial vocabulary would influence school performance at ages 9-10, Betty and Todd hired Dale Walker to examine this. His findings w... ...kheim defines what he calls â€Å"social fact† in his book â€Å"The Rules of the Sociological Method† is â€Å"the beliefs, tendencies, and practices of the group taken collectively†. This could also be read as â€Å"the religious denominations, political and literary schools, and occupational corporations of a particular social system†. Social fact can’t exist without well-defined social organization. Durkheim claims â€Å"most of our ideas and tendencies are not developed by ourselves, but come to us from the outside†. This ties back to what â€Å"The 30 Million Word Gap† was about. The social facts imposed on children by their parents and teachers will precisely shape the child’s image. As the child grows older and becomes part of their society, their ways of thinking and feeling exist outside of their consciousness. Whether they realize it or not, their social fact has been imposed on them.

Behaviorism and Gender

Making everyday decisions is an inevitable course of our daily existence. The choices we do concerning our diet, outfits, daily hygiene, companions and others seem as a normal daily routine. Thus, most of the time we seldom contemplate on the process by which we have accomplished our daily decision-making tasks. Meanwhile, different psychological theories supported the notion that every human behavior is shaped and propelled by motives and rewards such as food, money, status, and prestige (Howard and Hollander 43).Humans behave in ways for the attainment of their goals and avoidance of negative events and consequences that bring pain and suffering (Howard and Hollander 43). In this connection, humans shape their personalities in parallel with societal expectations so as to gain social acceptance (Howard and Hollander 43). In this way, the attainment of goal and avoidance of negative experiences are much assured. Hence, the development or acquisition of gender, a societal sexual persp ective, is greatly influenced by psycho-sociological factors (Howard and Hollander 43).In the early historical period of psychological disciplines, behaviorism became the backbone of psychological studies on human behavior (Howard and Hollander 43). Although contemporary theories have gone beyond the postulates of behaviorists like Skinner and Pavlov, their psychological principles served as the bases for intensive and advanced studies in the field of psychology (Howard and Hollander 43). Through studies on animal behaviors, behavioral psychologists made assumptions on perception, motivation, and learning of every individual (Howard and Hollander 43).They scrutinized every factor that affects behavioral attributes of the subject animal then applied it on their observational studies on humans (Howard and Hollander 43). Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov’s notion about â€Å"conditioned reflex† is a result of his studies on animal digestion (Elliot et al. 203). In his ex periments, he observed that dog produces saliva in anticipation of food. The flow of saliva in dog’s mouth was observed in response not only on the sight of food dish but also upon hearing the attendant’s sound during feeding.The dog was conditioned that seeing the attendant or hearing a bell is a signal of giving food (Elliot et al. 203). Thus, the dog salivated either in the sight of the attendant or upon hearing the bell. Pavlov called each signal as â€Å"conditioned stimulus†. He explained that the food is the â€Å"unconditioned stimulus† that elicited salivation as a response (Elliot et al. 203). At first, salivation was induced upon the sight of food. Then, the food was given simultaneously with metronome. After sometime, the metronome alone caused dog’s salivation (Elliot et al. 203). Classical Conditioning and GenderIn child rearing practices, at very young age children are conditioned on the choice of garments and toys appropriate to the ir sexes. This conditioning as absorb by the child can possibly be applied on different settings. For instance, the choice of toys based on sexes such as Barbie doll for a girl and plastic gun for a boy, would lead to the child’s discretion on the type of game or playmates he or she will involved into. This is called â€Å"stimulus generalization† wherein the conditioned behavior, the choice of toys, affected the preference for games or playmates.On the other hand, if the initial conditioning did not affect other preferences, the child then learned the process of discrimination. Through discrimination, the child has limited his or her behavior only on the â€Å"conditioned stimulus† which is the toy selection in this case. Also, the extinction of loss of conditioned stimulus’ effect on one’s behavior is possible. In Pavlov’s experiments, after several trials of presenting food to the dog without the metronome, the metronome alone did not eli cit salivation when presented (Elliot et al. 203).Hence, a child as days pass-by may lose the conditioned stimulus toy selection on his or her mind. Operant Conditioning B. F. Skinner made refinements on the principles of classical conditioning and applied his psychological ideas on different human endeavors (Elliot et al. 208). He proposed the importance of reinforcement in eliciting a desired behavior and that environment has great influence in one’s behavior. In his operant conditioning, he emphasized that environment reinforces or terminates one’s behavior, thus, has the key role in understanding behavior (Elliot et al. 208).According to Skinner, behavior is a product of a three-connective processes; operation performed by the organism, inner condition, and behavioral response (Elliot et al. 208). Skinner elicited desired behaviors among his subject animals such as rats and pigeons through his operant chamber (Mayers). Later on, researchers tested the different rei nforcers and scheduling of such to facilitate the shaping of desired behavior. They found that the acquisition of desired behavior although less through partial reinforcement schedules as compared with continuous reinforcement, but produced more extinction resistance (Mayers).Moreover, punishment applied to achieve the desired behavior or to terminate a particular behavior, even though has negative consequences, but effective when immediately and consistently given (Mayers). Operant Conditioning and Gender Behavioral theorists suggested that every creature regardless of race, societal status, sex and profession is governed by the same behavioral principles (Howard and Hollander 44). In terms of behaviorism, the development of gender could be possibly explained by making a notion that gender differences and similarities are behavioral consequences (Howard and Hollander 44).Experiments can be designed to elicit gender behavioral patterns of both males and females through different rei nforcement pattern. In behavioral perspectives, men and women could be either aggressive or nurturing if they are awarded or punished in such behavior (Howard and Hollander 44). Then, through field studies, behaviorists can assess environmental factors influencing men or women and yield plausible explanation for the behavioral effects of these factors (Howard and Hollander 44). Through conditioning process, the gender can be imparted into the child’s mind either unconsciously or purposively.The type of garments or toys given to the child may embark into his or her mind some restrictions on the things he or she can be used. In addition, some parents either directly or indirectly, inculcate a male child to imitate his father’s behavior, action, and style while a female child to be like her mother. By conforming to these parental expectations, the child gains positive reinforcements from his or her parents that strengthen his or her behavior. With these, the child may for m his or her early conceptions of gender role and stereotypes. Criticisms on Conditioning TheoryEven though many studies have been conducted to support the conditioning theory of gender development, these are mostly conducted with animals (Naik). In 1984, K. Boulding contended the Skinner’s generalization about the applicability of the principles drawn from animal studies into complex behavior of humans (Naik). He suggested that more studies with human participants must be conducted in order to prove the validity of Skinner’s postulates. While Skinner’s operant conditioning has been recognized in neurosis and phobia therapy, but still insufficient to explain complex human attributes such as language and memory (Naik).In line with this, M. E. P. Seligman proposed that aside from classical and operational conditioning, genetic preparedness has a crucial role in the development of behavioral characteristics (Naik). This third factor associates a particular reinforc er or stimulus to a certain response. He further argued that most behaviorist have utilized unprepared sets of stimulus like shock and light, provided less input for the association process, then created generalization of unprepared behavioral output applicable to general cases (Naik).Therefore, even if the behaviorist’s principles are valid with respect to their sets of unprepared stimulus in laboratory experiments, but still insufficient to provide plausible explanations for prepared behaviors (Naik). Nonetheless, Seligman cited the work of Rozin and Garcia (1971) wherein rats were given with sweetened water as flash of lights and noise were applied simultaneously (Naik). Then, the subjects were treated with X-rays to induce illness and nausea. After several hours, rats became ill and develop aversion with sweetened water but not with noise or light (Naik).According to Seligman genetic predispositions led to the aversion of rats with anything that may cause illness on their part (Naik). Conditioned Emotional Reactions The Little Albert Study In 1920 John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner tested the following in their experimental study: developing and conditioning an infant to fear an animal through loud and fearing sound; the possibility to develop fear to other animals or objects through the conditioned fear; and the time duration of the conditioned fear (Brain 135). Waston and Reyner selected a healthy and unemotional, around nine-month old child named Albert B.as subject of their study (Brain 135). At the start, Albert has no fear in dealing with animals and other objects. When a metal bar is struck by a claw hammer behind him, Albert develops fear. After two-month observation with Albert, Watson and Reyner conditioned him to develop fear with a white rat by a loud clanging sound, produce by the metal bar and claw hammer, as he touches the rat (Brain 135). After seven trials of rat and noise pairing, fear was developed with Albert as the rat was presen ted alone (Brain 135).Then, after five days, the rat, a rabbit, a sealskin coat, the heads of Watson and his assistants, a shorthaired dog, a Santa Claus mask, a package of white cotton, and wooden blocks were presented to Albert. He showed strong fear with the rat, sealskin coat, dog and rabbit, and a mild fear response with cotton (Brain 136). On the other hand, Albert did not develop fear with the mask, Watson’s hair, and wooden blocks (Brain 135). Five more days later, the rat, dog, and rabbit each paired with a loud noise were again presented to Albert but he has only showed slight reaction for each stimulus (Brain 136).Finally, after thirty-one days, the rat, dog, rabbit, sealskin coat, and Santa Claus mask were again presented to Albert. Watson and Reyner found out that although Albert still showed fear on these things, he manifested tendency to touch each object (Brain 136). Evaluation and Criticisms The â€Å"Little Albert Study† provided an empirical basis fo r Watson’s theory on the development of emotion and behavior (Brain 137). Watson proved through this experiment that emotional responses can be conditioned and learned.He concluded that phobias are conditioned responses that probably an original fear with a particular stimulus which has been transferred to another object in the duration of time (Brain 137). Similarly with Sigmund Freud, Watson believed that adult personality is significantly influenced by childhood early experiences (Brain 137). However, his work was criticized on the ground that emotional responses are qualitative attributes that can be hardly measured (Brain 137). In addition, since they only have a single subject in their experiment, principles that are valid for general cases may not plausibly be drawn from the results of their study.Since, there was no follow-up studies after Albert has leaved the hospital, the effects on conditioning made were not determined, thus, Watson’s notion on early childh ood experiences and behavioral development lacked definite proof (Brain 137). Moreover, ethical issues have been imputed with Watson’s works for he manipulated Albert by purposively creating fearing situations (Brain 137). He failed therefore to consider the spontaneous development of behavior through natural settings. Analysis and ConclusionBehaviorists were criticized for their notion that every organism follows similar norms as dictated by their conditioning principles (Mayers). At present, it is an accepted psychological truth that conditioning principles are governed by cognition and hindered by biological factors (Mayer). In Pavlov’s classical conditioning, the subject animal learned to anticipate for an â€Å"unconditioned stimulus† however, animals have biological attributes in learning associations like recognition of poisonous food through smell association (Mayers).Thus, behavior is not only elicited through external stimulus such as bell (Mayers). Be haviorists found that animal behavior can be shaped through reinforcement or the association of a response behavior with eliciting positive or negative stimulus (Howard and Hollander 44). They suggested that this principle as applied on humans could possibly provide clear behavioral explanations (Howard and Hollander 44). As applied on humans, behavioral theorists proposed that consequences of actions could provide understanding of the behavior of an individual (Howard and Hollander 44).This could be done by relating an action with the consequences of a similar action done in the past. Further, behaviorists believed that if in the past experiences, actions of an individual created rewards and punishments (Howard and Hollander 44). Actions that were rewarded are tended to be repeated in the present time while actions associated with punishments are avoided (Howard and Hollander 44). However, behavioral theorists have only considered behavior and neglected thoughts and emotions.Accord ing to them, thoughts, emotions or feelings are not behavioral determinants but are just by-products of the environmental effects on one’s behavior (Howard and Hollander 44). Cognitive and constructive psychologists criticized Skinner for he has given value on the external control of behavior and underestimated the cognitive and biological precepts (Mayers). For instance, contemporary studies on learning and motivation revealed the crucial role of cognition and physiological brain processes.Nevertheless, operant principles were deemed to control people, thus, led to ethical issues (Mayers). Nowadays, Skinner’s psychological notions are applied for success reinforcement in different fields (Mayers). Through operant conditioning, a desired behavior is produced by giving positive reinforcements while a behavior is terminated by applying punishing stimulus. Based on the above discussions, the process of socialization has a crucial role on gender acquisition and development . Through socialization process, an individual learns the societal norms and mores.The agents of socialization such as family, educational institution, peers, and media reflect and even dictate conditioned gender stereotypes that an individual must conform with; otherwise leads to societal ridicule. In line with this, gender stereotypes shaped masculinity as an individual’s ability to control themselves on emotional situations whenever necessary especially within the workplace and even in their sexual relationships (Lothstein 212-214). Thus, has influenced male behaviors as being competitive, assertive, independent, assertive, confident, tough, often angered and violent.With these characteristics on hand, males must keep in mind to evade having feminine characteristics such as being expressive on their thoughts, emotional, vulnerable and intimate in avoidance of societal ridicule (Lothstein 212-214). In the society, being feminine is traditionally described as â€Å"nurturin g, supportive, and assigning high priority to one's relationships† (Lothstein 212-214). Also, females are expected to avoid manly behaviors like being competitive, assertive and often angry and violent (Lothstein 212-214).Therefore, behaviorism views may not suffice to provide a plausible explanation for the development and acquisition of gender. Unlike the subjects of the behavioral psychologists in their laboratory experiments, humans are exposed to the different socio-cultural factors that spontaneously affect behavioral attributes. Hence, behavioral theories should be incorporated with other contemporary theories on gender such as psychoanalytic, psychosocial, social-cognitive, biological, and schema theory for a better perspective on gender acquisition and development. Works CitedBrain, Christine. â€Å"Advanced Subsidiary Psychology: Approaches and Methods. † UK: Nelson Thornes, 2000. Elliot, Stephen N. , Kratochwill, Thomas R. , Cook, Joan Littlefield, and Traver s, John F. â€Å"Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, 3rd Ed. † Boston, MA: McGraw Hill, 2000. Howard, Judith A. and Hollander, Jocelyn. â€Å"Gendered Situations, Gendered Selves: A Gender Lens on Social Psychology. † Lanham, Maryland: Rowman Altamira, 1997. Lothstein, Leslie Martin. â€Å"Female-to-Male Transsexualism. † Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul plc, 1983Mayers, David G. â€Å"Psychology, 8th Ed. † 2006. Worth Publishers. 9 January 2009 . Naik, Payal. â€Å"Behaviorism as a Theory of Personality: A Critical Look. † August 1998. Personality Papers. 9 January 2009 < http://www. personalityresearch. org/papers/naik. html>.

Economics and Prostitution - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1551 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2019/07/31 Category Society Essay Tags: Prostitution Essay Did you like this example? Prostitution has constantly confounded the psyches of individuals for a considerable length of time. Steady endeavors to tackle this current issue have not by any means given any positive outcomes. For quite a while the issue was clearly disregarded by the administration as though it totally did not recognize what to do with it. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Economics and Prostitution" essay for you Create order In the start of the XXI century a whore has turned out to be a standout amongst the most standard products that the market can offer. It is likewise important to say that the request on prostitution is continually becoming because of a few elements worth of isolated investigation. Prostitution has dependably been secured from the eyes of natives as is has dependably been inadmissible. By the by, the issue does not vanish, and it turns out to be considerably sharper with time. Obviously, it is less demanding to imagine like there is no huge measure of ladies and men that have no other method to survive however offering sexual administrations. Essentially, the Law of Canada has not done anything sufficient to take care of the issue in any capacity, apart from causing dubiousness in the comprehension of what is lawful and unlawful as far as sexual administrations. Prostitution has a great deal to do with the economy, as it isnt just its dim side yet in addition the potential lawful pay, which is constantly required to such an extent. So, what is prostitution? Does it require conservative incitement, or would it be a good idea for it to be totally disallowed or disregarded? Furthermore, should the prudent approach be utilized to prostitution by any means? Prostitution isnt and will never be a standard employment and this is something that will be always remembered. The most astonishing thing about prostitution is that it has turned out to be not only an approach to profit for starving and vagrants yet in addition a profession open door for the youthful age. For what reason do our youngsters need to grow up with the thought that prostitution is a wellspring of getting cash and making due in this world? The contemporary world lives under specific regularities. A man needs to land a position that will give him or her an adequate measure of cash with a specific end goal to keep up an ordinary living. So, if a man does not have enough learning to land either position he or she generally has another open door to prostitute himself or herself. Prostitution as a crude was of profiting; it is an issue that keeps the public from its flawlessness and advancement. Prostitution is clearly a negative wonder, dispiriting the public however is has really turned into an occupation for some people and this reality cant stay unnoticed. Prostitution does exist and it an unchallengeable truth. It existed since antiquated circumstances in various nations, with various social-political statuses. A whore is a man who gives sexual administrations in return to cash. As such it is a man who offers sex and gets paid for it. All things considered, none of the general population giving this kind of administrations are playing out a business movement. It is generally trusted that whores are ladies; by the by men have an essential influence in prostitution as a question of appeal, as well. In any case it is difficult to give a definition to prostitution as a calling, since whores dont pay assesses and dont get any annuity while on retirement. Prostitution isnt unlawful in Canada and this reality places it in an extremely dubious position as far as conceivable profession openings for the youthful age. It is legitimate to offer administrations, yet it is unlawful to get themthis announcement makes numerous individuals puzzled. On e thing is sure without a doubt: prostitutionis a demonstration of offering a mans body for assist sexual administrations for material pay. Picking prostitution as a calling isnt normal. Indeed, it brings wage and the request is constantly high. Be that as it may, what will a whore stay with at the limit of the annuity age? This is one reason that numerous individuals, for example, the criminologist Dr. John Lowman contend for its legalization1. Prostitution is considered as a potential wellspring of recharging the financial plan of Canada. Yet, there are additionally different purposes behind not turning into a whore except for the duty benefits side of the issue. A significant number of the whores just vanish and frequently turn into the casualties of savagery. As indicated by the insights 90 percent had been physically attacked in prostitution and 78 percent had been assaulted in prostitution2. Whores dont get the security the agents of standard callings do. They can likewise be the reason for spreading of venereal illnesses because of the reality of nonattendance of a legitimate therapeutic checkup. This perils place prostitution in the situation of the hazard zone occupation. Nobody will contend that picking an occupation with high dangers isnt objective in any way. Prostitution is lawful in Canada. Be that as it may, it is formally, claiming pimping and working or being found in or working in an indelicate house (each place where at least one whores frequently work or where revolting acts are performed) are not3. Criminal Code areas 210 and 211 deny Off color houses and segment 212 anticipates duty regarding living on the profits of the prostitution of a man. By what method should the sparing methodology be connected to prostitution? Canadas Justice has set prostitution in a place where is must be done in specific spots with no exposure or as it were it needs to regard the ethical projections of the public. If prostitution is to be a sort of calling than it is put on a similar level with different citizens, for example, instructors, legal counselors and numerous others. The use of the sparing methodology implies that prostitution needs to have a legitimate status. SO, this influences us to see prostitution as a business. A business movement is an autonomous action coordinated to a precise pay entry from property utilize, offering merchandise, work execution or rendering administrations enlisted and expressed by Law. So, prostitution is a methodical salary acquired from rendering an administra tion. Prostitution gets the likelihood to exist wrongfully from the holes in the Law and the Canadian Law with its semi-legitimization does not make it less demanding to characterize the status of prostitution in the nation. If prostitution is lawful than whores must be 18 years of age and have the privilege to medicinal and government disability. In the meantime, they need to pay the month to month wage impose, which will make the calling less gainful, at that point it is presently. The existence of prostitution in Canada still can be clarified shape the purpose of the financial approach for Canada has a market-based economy. As per the monetary approach both sides must be in benefit. Request brings forth supply and, in this term, prostitution is only the response of the popularity of sexual administrations. So, it is about the profound quality of the public in any case. Outsiders ought to be totally wiped out from this arrangement. These outsiders, known as pimps or even sex-firms are the ones to be mistreated. Sex-laborers have turned into a fundamental piece of Canadas public and they even shape collusions, for example, the Sex Workers Alliance of Vancouver. The measure of cash acquired from prostitution is huge, so in this manner the monetary allowance is left with no extra financing. There are just two courses outeither to totally authorize it dispensing with road prostitution or to totally deny it. Prostitution has expanded in the most recent years in Cana da. This has a ton to do with the sex-vacationers touching base to Canada hunting down sexual administrations. This implies Canada is getting remote stores that go to no place. Prostitution can be found in Canadas each corner and particularly in its fundamental cities4. Its existence is molded by numerous components. Canada is putting forth authorized sex however for reasons unknown the holes in the law implementations are big to the point that it is totally difficult to see them. As a rule, prostitution is the main choice of a man and the response of the administration ought not be through the authorization of this alternative but rather in the formation of different choices of not too bad cash making. The monetary approach clarifies the existence of prostitution because any nation is a major commercial center and is occupied with benefit in any case and Canada in not a special case. The imparting law isnt successful any longer. Prostitution should be investigated from each side and needs another origination of working if working by any means. The monetary approach application does not infer that the benefit is made on the debasement of the public. Whats m ore, clearly if the sex-specialists had instruction, a work environment and a conventional compensation they could never have wound up on the board and could be their work would have brought a greater pay for the financial plan. Canada needs to change the monetary way to deal with the human approach and study everything concerning the prostitution for new. Work Citing: Dr. John Lowman: Canada is to the slave trade what Japan is to the whaling industry. Information taken from www. LifeSiteNews.com